Country: Mozambique

Group: Xitsonga/Tsonga

Date finalized: 11/19/2020

Team: Vianney Mancilla (lead), Zeenat Hammond, Rebekah Kamer

Content Warning: forced labor, racism

Approximate Time Period: 1800-1975

            The Tsonga in Mozambique have likely experienced forced labor. The data quality for the evidence found is a 2-due to the lack of specific details.

            First, during the Mfecane upheaval of the 19th Century, the Tsonga were conquered and enslaved by Soshangane, the founder and king of the Gaza Empire (Siyabona Africa, n.d.). Many fled to northern Mozambique and those who remained became known as the new, Shangaan Tsonga tribe (Siyabona Africa, n.d.). The second instance of forced labor relates to forced migration labor. The Tsonga have a history of migration in order to escape their unfortunate circumstances such as harsh colonial rule, lack of income and sustenance due to disease-ridden cattle, etc. (Harries, 1977). Consequently, reports show that since 1850, approximately 3000 Tsonga individuals had migrated to Natal as indentured servants for three-year contracts (Harries, 1977). Over the late 19th century, the Tsonga continued to migrate and earn low wages as labor workers in areas like South Africa for mining (Harries, 1977). The Portuguese colonial regime suffered because of the lack of workers since many of the Tsonga along with others in Mozambique were laborers elsewhere (Norman, 2005). The Portuguese began to use ‘push factors’ to increase their control and profit of the Southern provinces (Norman, 2005). The push factors included forced labor, hut taxes, and the flow of their own migrant workers from India (Norman, 2005). Furthermore, in 1899, the Portuguese legitimized the system of forced labor under chibalo, where every six-months an able-bodied African man is required to perform forced labor in the public (road-building) or private (domestic servants) sectors (Norman, 2005). The working conditions were brutal-no food or lodging was provided, the workers were subjected to beatings and little to no pay (Norman, 2005). Norman states that this system functioned under various guises in Mozambique until 1975 where approximately 102,470 Mozambicans were at work in the gold mines (Norman, 2005).

References

  1. Harries, Patrick (1977) Labour migration from Delagoa Bay Hinterland to South Africa, 1852-1895. Collected Seminar Papers. Institute of Commonwealth Studies, 21. pp. 61-76. Retrieved from https://sas-space.sas.ac.uk/4045/1/Patrick_Harries_-_Labour_migration_from_delagoa_bay_hinterland_to_South_Africa%2C_1852-1895.pdf on November 13, 2020
  2. Norman, William Oliver (2005) Living on the frontline: Politics, migration and transfrontier conservation in the Mozambican villages of the Mozambique-South Africa borderland. PhD thesis, London School of Economics and Political Science (United Kingdom). Retrieved from http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/1767/ on November 13, 2020
  3. Siyabona Africa. (n.d.) Shangaan Tsonga. Retrieved from http://www.krugerpark.co.za/africa_shangaan_tsonga.html on November 13, 2020